Generics¶
Formal packages¶
Abstracting definitions into packages¶
In this section and in the next ones, we will reuse the generic
reversing algorithm that we discussed in the chapter about generics
from the introductory course
(Generics).
In that example, we were declaring three formal types for the
Generic_Reverse_Array procedure. However, we could abstract the array
definition into a separate package and reuse it for the generic procedure.
This could be potentially useful in case we want to create more generic
procedures for the same array.
In order to achieve this, we start by first specifying a generic package that contains the generic array type definition:
As you can see, this definition is the same that we've seen in the
previous section: we just moved it into a separate package. Now, we have a
definition of Array_T that can be reused in multiple places.
The next step is to reuse the Simple_Generic_Array_Pkg package in the
Generic_Reverse_Array procedure. By doing this, we can eliminate the
declaration of the Index and Array_T types that we had before,
since the definition will come from the Simple_Generic_Array_Pkg
package.
In order to reuse the Simple_Generic_Array_Pkg package in the
Generic_Reverse_Array procedure, we need to use a formal package
declaration in the form:
with package P is new Simple_Generic_Array_Pkg(<params>)
This will allow us to reuse definitions from the generic package.
This is the updated version of the our test application for the reversing algorithm:
In this example, we're first instantiating the
Simple_Generic_Array_Pkg package, thereby creating the Color_Pkg
package. We then proceed to use this Color_Pkg package in the
instantiation of the generic Reverse_Array procedure. Also, in the
declaration of the My_Colors array, we make use of the array type
definition from the Color_Pkg package.
Abstracting procedures into packages¶
In the previous example, we moved the array type definition into a
separate package, but left the generic procedure (Reverse_Array) in
the test application. We can also move the generic procedure into the
generic package:
The advantage of this approach is that we don't need to repeat the formal
declaration for the Reverse_Array procedure. Also, this simplifies the
instantiation in the test application.
However, the disadvantage of this approach is that it also increases code size: every instantiation of the generic package generates code for each subprogram from the package. Also, compilation time tends to increase significantly. Therefore, developers must be careful when considering this approach.
Because we have a procedure declaration in the generic package, we need a
corresponding package body. Here, we can simply reuse the existing code
and move the procedure into the package body. In the test application, we
just instantiate the Generic_Array_Pkg package and make use of the
array type (Array_T) and the procedure (Reverse_Array):
Color_Pkg.Reverse_Array (My_Colors);
This is the generic package body:
Abstracting the test application¶
In the previous examples, we've focused only on abstracting the reversing algorithm. However, we could have decided to also abstract our little test application. This could be useful if we, for example, decide to test other procedures that change elements of an array.
In order to achieve this, we have to abstract quite a few elements. We will therefore declare the following formal parameters:
S: the string containing the array name- an instance of the
Generic_Array_Pkgpackage (which was implemented in the previous section)- a function
Imagethat converts an element of typeTto a string- a procedure
Pkg_Testthat performs some operation on the array
Note that Image and Pkg_Test are examples of formal subprograms.
Also, note that S is an example of a formal object.
This is a version of the test application that makes use of the generic
Perform_Test procedure:
In this example, we create the procedure
Perform_Test_Reverse_Color_Array as an instance of the generic
procedure (Perform_Test). Note that:
- For the formal
Imagefunction, we make use of the'Imageattribute of theColortype- For the formal
Pkg_Testprocedure, we reference theReverse_Arrayprocedure from the package.
Note that this example includes a formal package declaration:
with package Array_Pkg is new Generic_Array_Pkg (<>);
Previously, we've seen package instantiations that define the elements. For example:
package Color_Pkg is new Generic_Array_Pkg (T => Color, Index => Integer);
In this case, however, we're using simply (<>). This means that the
generic procedure (Perform_Test) will accept the default definition
used for the instance of Generic_Array_Pkg.
Abstracting test application by cascading generic packages¶
In the code example from the previous section, we declared four formal
parameters for the Perform_Test procedure. Two of them are directly
related to the array that we're using for the test:
S: the string containing the array name- the function
Imagethat converts an elements of the array to a string
We could abstract our implementation even further by moving these elements
into a separate package named Generic_Array_Bundle and reference the
Generic_Array_Pkg there. This would create a chain of generic
packages:
Generic_Array_Bundle <= Generic_Array_Pkg
This strategy demonstrates that, in Ada, it is really straightforward to make use of generics in order to abstracts algorithms.
First, let us define the new Generic_Array_Bundle package, which
references the Generic_Array_Pkg package and the two formal elements
(S and Image) mentioned previously:
Then, we update the definition of Perform_Test:
Note that, in this case, we reduce the number of formal parameters to only two:
Array_Bundle: an instance of the newGeneric_Array_Bundlepackage
- the procedure
Pkg_Testthat we already had before
We could go even further and move Perform_Test into a separate
package. However, this will be left as an exercise for the reader.
Formal objects¶
Formal objects are used to bind objects to a generic specification. They
are similar to parameters in subprograms and can have in or
in out modes.
One of the simplest applications of formal objects is to use them to configure a generic subprogram or package during instantiation. For example, we can implement a generic function that processes an array of floating-point values and calculates an output value. This calculation is implemented in two versions:
- a standard version;
- a faster version that is less accurate than the standard version.
While the generic implementation offers both variants, developers can select the version that is more appropriate for their system during instantiation.
In this example, we instantiate the fast version of Gen_Calc.
Input-output formal objects¶
Formal objects with in out mode are used to bind objects in an
instance of a generic specification. For example, we may bind a global
object from a package to the instantiation of a generic procedure, so that
all calls to this instance make use of that object internally.
In the application below, we create a database using a container and bind it to procedures that display information from the database in a specific format.
The Data_Elements package describes the data fields of the data
container. It also includes an Image function that returns a string
based on the specified field.
This is the corresponding package body:
Note that the age field in the Image function (represented by
Age_F) isn't a field from the data container, but a calculated
value instead.
The Data package below implements the data container using a
vector. It includes the generic procedure Display that exhibits the
information from the data container based on the fields specified by the
developer at the procedure instantiation.
Note that, in addition to Container, which is a formal input-output
object, we make use of the Fields and Header objects, which
are formal input objects. Also, note that we could have declared
Container as a parameter of Display instead of declaring it
as a formal object:
generic
Fields : Data_Fields_Array;
Header : String := "";
procedure Display (Container : in out Data_Container);
In this case, we wouldn't be able to bind a local Container object
to the instantiation of the Display procedure. Instead, we would
always have to pass the container as an argument. Potentially, we could
pass the wrong container to the procedure. By using a formal input-output
object, we make sure that a specific object is bound to the procedure.
This design decision ensures that we always have the same object being
used in all calls to an instance of the Display procedure.
This is the corresponding body of the Data package:
Finally, we implement the Test_Data_Container procedure, which
makes use of the data container:
In this example, we declare the data container C and bind it to
two instantiations of the Display procedure:
Display_First_Name_Age, which displays the first name and age of each person from the database;Display_Name_Birthday, which displays the full name and birthday of each person.
Formal interfaces¶
Generating subprogram specifications¶
Formal interfaces can be used to generate a collection of pre-defined
subprograms for new types. For example, let's suppose that, for a given
type T, we need at least a pair of subprograms that set and get
elements of type T based on another type. We might want to convert
back and forth between the types T and Integer. In addition,
we might want to convert from and to other types (e.g., Float). To
implement this, we can define the following generic interface:
In this example, the package Set_Get defines subprograms that allow
converting from any definite type (TD) and the interface type
(TI).
We then proceed to declare packages for converting between Integer
and Float types and the interface type. Also, we declare an actual
tagged type that combines these conversion subprograms into a single type:
First, we declare the packages Set_Get_Integer and
Set_Get_Float based on the generic Set_Get package. Next,
we declare My_Type based on the interface type from these two
packages. By doing this, My_Type now needs to implement the actual
conversion from and to Integer and Float types.
Note that, in the private part of My_Type, we're storing the
floating-point and integer representations that we receive in the calls to
the Set procedures. However, we could have complex data as well and
just use conversion subprograms to provide a simplified representation of
the complex data.
This is just an example on how we could implement these Set and
Get subprograms:
As expected, declaring and using variable of My_Type is
straightforward:
Facilitating arrays of interfaces¶
Formal interfaces can facilitate the handling of arrays of interface
types. Let's consider an interface type TI and the derived tagged
types T and T2. We may declare arrays containing elements
that access the TI class. These arrays can be initialized with
elements that access types T or T2. Also, we may process
these arrays with an operation Op using the API of the TI
interface.
This is a test application that declares an array A of the
interface type TI and calls Op for A:
This example doesn't work if we use an array of the derived type T:
with TI_Pkg; use TI_Pkg;
with T_Pkg; use T_Pkg;
procedure Test_T is
A : T_Array (1 .. 3) :=
(1 => new T,
2 => new T2,
3 => new T);
begin
Op (A);
end Test_T;
This is incorrect because Op expects an array of type TI,
not T. Even if the type T is derived from TI, the
corresponding array type is not. Formal interfaces can be used to create
a generic version of Op that operates directly on an array of
type T. Let's look at an example.
The example below calculates the average of interface types that are
convertible to floating-point values. We consider that a type is
convertible to floating-point if it provides a To_Float function.
This is implemented with the Float_Cnvt_Type interface. We also
declare a generic package containing the Average function, which
calculates the average of an array containing elements of a
convertible type (i.e. any type derived from the Float_Cnvt_Type
interface).
This is the corresponding package body containing the implementation of
the generic Average function:
In the App_Data package, we declare two types derived from
Float_Cnvt_Type: T and T2. We also declare the
corresponding To_Float functions.
This is the corresponding package body:
Finally, this is a test application that declares an array of
convertible types and calls the Average function to calculate
the average of all elements.
In this example, we declare the array A with elements of both
T and T2 types. After initializing the elements of A,
we call the Average function from Ops, an instance of the
generic package Float_Interface_Pkg.Ops.
Discussion: formal interfaces vs. other approaches¶
In Ada, we basically have three approaches to describe interfaces. In addition to the approach using formal interfaces that we've just seen above, we also have these approaches:
- Formal subprograms, which we've presented in the introductory course (Generics).
- Formal packages, which we've discussed in the section on formal packages).
Let's briefly recapitulate these approaches:
The following subsections discuss the pros and cons of each approach. For the source-code examples, we'll implement a generic hash table.
Interfaces using formal subprograms¶
Formal subprograms, combined with a formal type, can be used to define an implicit interface. Let's look at the implementation of a generic hash table:
In contrast to formal interfaces, the interface described with formal
subprograms is implicit: we don't have an explicit interface type
defined here. However, the combination of type T and the function
Hash represent an interface.
The fact that we don't declare an explicit interface has the disadvantage
of not being as obvious as when the interface keyword is used in
the code. Developers are forced to recognize the design pattern: they have
to deduce that the intention of declaring T and Hash is to
define an interface. However, this approach has the advantage of not
requiring the use of tagged types in the package instantiation.
This is an example of a package instantiating the generic hash table:
Note that, in the declaration of the My_Type_Hash_Tables, we're
not specifying the Hash function for the instantiation of the
generic Hash_Tables package. This is possible for two reasons:
- In the declaration of the formal function parameter, we're using
is <>, which automatically selects a function with the same name in the package instantiation if available. - For
My_Type, we've declared a function that has the same name as the formal function.
If the above-mentioned conditions are not met, we have to provide an argument for the formal function parameter in the package instantiation.
We may also instantiate the formal package using alternative versions of
the function associated with the formal package. This is what we're doing
in the declaration of the My_Type_Alt_Hash_Tables package. In this
case, we're using Alt_Hash instead of Hash for the formal
function parameter. Note that, because the name of the actual function
doesn't match the name of the formal function, we need to indicate it
explicitly.
Interfaces using signature packages¶
Signature packages are used to group a set of types and subprograms that serve as a formal package parameter in another generic package. The basic form is similar to the approach we've just seen using formal subprograms: a signature package defines an interface using a formal type and formal subprograms.
Signature packages make it more explicit that the types and subprograms
defined in the package represent an interface. This is an advantage over
the approach using formal subprograms directly. However, using signature
package isn't as explicit as using the interface keyword.
In general, signature packages aren't used in isolation, but in combination with other generic packages. This also might provide a hint that a package is used to represent an interface.
Let's look at the implementation of a generic hash table using a signature package:
Note that this approach is more verbose than the previous one using formal subprograms directly. In this case, we have to declare two generic packages instead of one.
This is an example of a package instantiating a signature package and the generic hash table:
This approach shares the same advantage listed for the previous approach:
we may use any type, not only tagged types for instantiating the generic
package. However, when using signature packages, the generic package
instantiation also becomes more verbose: we have to instantiate two
packages instead of one to achieve the same result. For the example above,
we first declare the My_Type_Hashable package and use it in the
declaration of the My_Type_Hash_Tables package.
The advantage of this approach is that the instantiation of the actual
package (the hash table in our example) is simplified: instead of passing
all formal subprograms as parameters to My_Type_Hash_Tables, we
only need to specify the signature package which contains the complete
interface. When implementing complex interfaces, this approach might lead
to a cleaner design than the previous approach using formal subprograms
directly.
Interfaces using tagged types¶
Finally, let's discuss the design of generic packages using formal
interfaces and tagged types. In contrast to the two approaches mentioned
above, formal interfaces explicitly indicate what's the interface in the
implementation through the interface keyword. No interpretation of
design patterns is needed in this case.
For the approaches we've discussed earlier (using formal subprograms and signature packages), we were free to use any type in the instantiation of the generic package. However, for generic packages using formal interfaces, we can only use tagged types in the instantiation. This may be a serious restriction, especially if we have to deal with existing code containing types that are not tagged. Fortunately, in this case, we can use the previous approaches to implement interfaces.
Let's look at the implementation of a generic hash table using a formal interface:
This is an example of a package instantiating the generic hash table using a tagged type:
The instantiation of generic packages is much simpler in this case: we
don't have to pass operations as parameters in the package instantiation.
In this example, the declaration of My_Type_Hash_Tables is very
straightforward: we just have to specify the tagged type (My_Type).
All operations are implicitly defined in the tagged type, so we don't
have to specify them.
Formal synchronized interfaces¶
Formal synchronized interfaces are a specialized case of formal interfaces that can be used for task types and protected types. Since formal synchronized interfaces are similar to formal interfaces, we can reuse the previous source-code example with minimal adaptations.
When adapting the Gen_Interface package, we just need to make use
of the synchronized keyword:
Note that we're also renaming some packages (e.g., renaming
Gen_Interface to Gen_Sync_Interface) to better differentiate
between them. This approach is used in the adaptations below as well.
When adapting the My_Type_Pkg, we again need to make use of
the synchronized keyword. Also, we need to declare My_Type
as a protected type and adapt the subprogram and component declarations.
Note that we could have used a task type instead. This is the adapted
package:
In the package body, we just need to adapt the access to components in the subprograms:
Finally, the main application doesn't require adaptations:
Generic numeric types¶
Ada supports the use of numeric types for generics. This can be used to describe a numeric algorithm independently of the actual data type. We'll see examples below.
This is the corresponding syntax:
- For floating-point types:
type T is digits <>; - For binary fixed-point type:
type T is delta <>; - For decimal fixed-point types:
type T is delta <> digits <>;
In this section, we discuss generic floating-point and binary fixed-point types.
Generic floating-point types¶
Simple formal package¶
Let's look at an example of a generic package containing a procedure that
saturates floating-point numbers. In this code, we work with a
normalized range between -1.0 and 1.0. Due to the fact that some
calculations might lead to results outside this range, we use the
Saturate procedure to put values back into the normalized range.
This is the package specification:
This is the package body:
Finally, we create a test application:
In this application, we create two instances of the Gen_Float_Ops
package: one for the Float type and one for the Long_Float
type. We then make use of computations whose results are outside the
normalized range. By calling the Saturate procedure, we ensure that
the values are inside the range again.
Operations in formal packages¶
In this section, we discuss how to declare operations associated with floating-point types in formal packages.
Let's first define a package that implements a new type My_Float
based on the standard Float type. For this type, we override the
addition operator with an implementation that saturates the value after
the actual addition.
This is the package specification:
This is the corresponding package body:
Next, we create a package containing a procedure that accumulates floating-point values. This is the package specification:
In this specification, we declare a formal function for the addition
operator using with function. This operator is used by the
Acc procedure in the package body. Also, because we use <>
in the specification, the corresponding addition operator for type
F is selected.
This is the package body:
This is a test application that makes use of the Float_Types and
Gen_Float_Acc packages.
We create an instance of the Gen_Float_Acc by using the
My_Float type declared in the Float_Types package. Because
we used <> in the specification of function "+" (in the
Gen_Float_Acc package), the compiler will automatically select
the addition operator that we've overriden in the Float_Types
package, so that we don't need to specify it in the package instantiation.
The main reason for the formal subprogram in the specification of the
Gen_Float_Acc package is that it prevents the compiler from
selecting the standard operator. We could have removed the
function "+" from the specification, as illustrated in the
example below, where we modified the Gen_Float_Acc package:
generic
type F is digits <>;
-- no "with function" here!
package Gen_Float_Acc is
procedure Acc (V : in out F; S : F);
end Gen_Float_Acc;
package body Gen_Float_Acc is
procedure Acc (V : in out F; S : F) is
begin
-- Using standard addition for universal floating-point
-- type (digits <>) here:
V := V + S;
end Acc;
end Gen_Float_Acc;
In this case, however, even though we declared a custom addition operator
for the My_Float type in the Float_Types package, an
instantiation of the modified Gen_Float_Acc package would always
make use of the standard addition:
-- This makes use of the type definition of My_Float, but not its
-- overriden operators.
package Float_Ops is new Gen_Float_Acc (F => My_Float);
Because the type F is declared as digits <>, which
corresponds to the universal floating-point data type, the compiler
selects operators associated with the universal floating-point data type
in the package body. By specifying the formal subprogram, we make sure
that the operator associated with the actual type is used.
Alternatively, we could make use of the Float_Types package
directly in the generic package. For example:
In this case, because the formal type is now based on My_Float, the
corresponding operator for My_Float is used in the Acc
procedure.
Generic fixed-point types¶
Simple formal package¶
In the previous section, we looked into an example of saturation for generic floating-point types. Let's adapt this example for fixed-point types. This is the package specification:
For the fixed-point version, we specify the normalized range in the
definition of the data type. Therefore, any computation that leads to
values out of the normalized range will raise a Constraint_Error
exception. In order to circumvent this, we can declare a fixed-point data
type with a wider range and use it in combination with the actual
operation that we want to perform -- an addition, in this case. This
approach can be seen in the implementation of Sat_Add, which
computes the addition using the local Ovhd_Fixed type with wider
range, calls the Saturate procedure and converts the data type back
into the original range.
Ovhd_Fixed is a 64-bit fixed-point data type. By using
Assert`s in the package body that compare this data type to the
formal :ada:`F type from the package specification, we ensure that the
local fixed-point data type has enough overhead to cope with any
fixed-point operation that we want to implement. Also, we ensure that we
don't lose precision when converting back-and-forth between the local type
and the original type.
We then use the Gen_Fixed_Ops package in a test application:
In this test application, we declare two fixed-point data types:
the 16-bit type Fixed and the 32-bit type Long_Fixed.
These types are used to create instances of the Gen_Fixed_Ops. By
calling Sat_Add, we ensure that the result of adding fixed-point
values will always be in the allowed range and the computation will never
raise an exception.
Operations in formal packages¶
In this section, we discuss how to declare operations associated with fixed-point types in formal packages. We start by adapting the examples used for floating-point in the previous section, so that fixed-point types are used instead.
First, we define a package that implements a new fixed-point type called
Fixed. For this type, we override the addition operator with an
implementation that saturates the value after the actual addition. This is
the package specification:
In the package body, we make use of the Gen_Fixed_Ops package that
we discussed earlier in the previous section. By instantiating the
Gen_Fixed_Ops package, we can use the Sat_Add function in
the implementation of the saturating addition operator.
Next, we create a package containing a procedure that accumulates fixed-point values. This is the package specification:
In this specification, we declare a formal function for the addition
operator using with function. This operator is used by the
Acc procedure in the package body, which we show next.
This is a test application that makes use of the Fixed_Types and
Gen_Fixed_Acc packages.
We create an instance of the Gen_Fixed_Acc by using the
Fixed type declared in the Fixed_Types package. We then
call Acc to accumulate and saturate a fixed-point variable.
As mentioned earlier in the section on generic floating-point types, the
main reason for the formal subprogram in the specification of the
Gen_Fixed_Acc package is that it prevents the compiler from
selecting the standard operator. Alternatively, we could make use of the
Fixed_Types package directly in the generic package:
with Fixed_Types; use Fixed_Types;
generic
type F is new Fixed;
package Gen_Fixed_Acc is
procedure Acc (V : in out F; S : F);
end Gen_Fixed_Acc;